The Q factor of an inductor is a very important parameter. The Q factor tell us how close the inductor to an ideal inductor.
An ideal inductor is an inductor which has no losses. That is, its series resistance is zero. It is not possible to construct an ideal inductor as all inductors are made of wires which have resistances.
Q factor is the ratio of the inductive reactance to the series resistance of the inductor at a given frequency.
Q= XL/ R
The Q factor is an crucial parameter when designing resonant circuits as it will affect the damping. Higher the Q factor, higher is the efficiency of the inductor.
| Optical Fibre | Metallic Wire |
| Not a lightning hazard as it is non conducting | Can attract and transmit lightning |
| Lighter in weight | Heavier in weight |
| Not affected by Interference | Affected by interference |
| High data bandwidth | Lower data bandwidth |
| Lower data loss | Data loss is more |
| Faster data transmission | Relatively slower data transmission |
| Unauthorised tapping of data is difficult | Easier to tap data without authorization. |
| Difficult to terminate | Easier to terminate |
| High initial cost | Lower initial cost |
| Less affected by chemicals and pollution | More prone to effects of pollution |
| No risk of sparking. Hence, can be used in petroleum and chemical industries. | Risk of sparking and fire. Hence, cannot be used in hazardous environments. |
Terminating resistors are used in communication cables to prevent reflection of the transmitted signal. The reflected signal can cause interference which may affect data transmission. Hence, to prevent this resistances are connected in parallel.
The value of the impedance will match the wave impedance of the line. Thus a communication line with an impedance of 120 ohms will have a 120 ohm resistor connected across it. Short cables can function without terminating resistors.
A Band pass filter combines the characteristics of the High Pass and Low Pass Filters.
The Band pass Filter, as the name suggests, allows only signals of a particular band or range of frequencies to pass through. All other signals are blocked or shorted. 
Band pass Filters can be made by connecting a high pass filter in series to a low pass filter or vice versa.
A Band pass filter can be made by connecting an inductor in parallel to filter the low frequency components which lie below the desired frequency. Another inductor in series will then block the high frequency components which lie above the desired frequency.
Likewise, the Band pass filter can also be made using capacitors as in the second figure. Here, the first capacitor filters the high frequency components and the second capacitor in series blocks the low frequency components.
A High Pass Filter is a filter which permits high frequency signals to pass through and blocks only low frequency signals. The high pass filter has a relatively simple construction. The filter can be constructed by either providing a low impedance path to high frequency signals from the input to the output or by providing a low impedance path to low frequency
If a capacitor is connected in series between the input and the output, it will provide low impedance to high frequency signals and high impedance to low frequency signals. High frequency signals alone will be able to pass the capacitor.
Alternatively, if an inductor is connected in parallel to the input, it will offer low impedance to low frequency signals which will get shorted across the input. High frequency signals will alone reach the output.
A Low pass filter is a filter which permits only low frequency signals to pass through. High frequency signals are blocked or shorted across the input. The low pass filter offers low impedance to low frequencies and high impedance to high frequencies.
There are two ways of constructing a Low Pass Filter.
The first method is to connect an inductor in series to the output. The reactance of the inductor is so chosen that it offers high reactance to high frequency signals. Thus, high frequency voltages are blocked. At low frequency, the reactance is low and thus low frequency signals are allowed to pass.
Another method is to connect a capacitor in parallel to the input. The capacitor provides low reactance to high frequency signals which are shorted across the input. The low frequency signals see a high reactance in the capacitor and they alone reach the output. The series resistance serves to limit the current.
Air Termination Rods are used to provide lightning protection to parts of a building which protrude from the superstructure. Air termination rods can fixed to terraces, beams, etc. Air termination rods consist of a rod or any pointed surface which is connected to the lightning protection system of the building.
Air Termination Rods are also used for equipment which are kept in exposed flat surfaces such as solar panels and pipelines.
Air Termination Rods may need to be supported against winds by means of suitable support structures.
Bonded Connections are used to connect a conductor to another body such as a pipe, gate, door or a railing. All metallic objects in a building or a facility need to be connected to the earth. This is necessary to prevent accidental voltage getting induced in them due to contact
Bonded Connectors are usually galvanized to prevent corrosion. They have flat surfaces which increase the contact area with the object to be bonded. They are made of a material similar to the conductor material such as copper or aluminium.
Voltage limiting devices are used in Electric Traction systems, to prevent dangerous voltages from appearing the insulated tracks and the earthed components of the installation.
Overvoltages can occur due to lightning or due to short circuits. Voltage limiting devices typically use a MOV (metal oxide varistor) and and air gap mechanism to conduct the high voltage impulse to the ground.
If case of minor overvoltages, the MOV operates and diverts the surge. It then returns to its normal non-conducting state. In case of severe overvoltages, a permanent short circuit occurs between the protective electrodes and the device has to be replaced.
Recurrent Surge Oscillation is done on the windings of large generators such as turbo alternators. The Recurrent Surge Oscillation Test (RSO) helps identify shorts in the winding.
Shorts in the winding occur as the insulation between turns deteriorates and fails. Shorts can cause localised heating and arcing which can further damage the alternators. Shorts can also become earth faults in course of time. Multi-turn shorts can also result in a drop in the voltage.
The Recurrent surge oscillation tests is done by sending voltages of low voltage and high frequency through the winding and checking the waveform at the other terminal. If the waveform has suffered any distortion, it may indicate an abnormality. The waveform can give information such as the location of the fault and its severity.
Some short circuits may not be obvious when the rotor is at rest. The conductors will come in contact with each other only during the running condition, due to the centrifugal force. To identify such faults, the rotor is made to rotate and the test is conducted.
The Half Wave Rectifier functions using a single diode. It rectifies only half of the sine wave. 
During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is in forward bias and current flows to the load. In the negative half cycle, when the voltage is applied in the opposite direction, the diode is in reverse bias and no current flows.
The Half wave rectifier is a simple device which requires only one diode to be put in series with the load.
The half wave rectifier has a low power output.
Besides, the ripple content of the rectified DC supply is very high. This can damage the loads.
It has very few applications and is only used in emergencies as a temporary measure.
This Full Wave rectifier has only two diodes. Each diode conducts during one half cycle. In the first half cycle, diode D1 is forward bias and the current flows into the load and returns through the centre tap of the transformer.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 is in conduction. The current flows through the load in the same direction and returns through the centre tap. Thus the current is in the same direction through the load.
This means of rectifier has generally been replaced by the bridge rectifier as the centre tap is not always available.
Controlled Rectifiers are rectifiers which have thyristors in place of a diode. A thyristor is a three terminal device which can be switched on by applying a suitable gate voltage. 
In a Controlled Rectifier, generally two of the diodes are replaced with a thyristor. The thyristor enables the enables switching on the output of the rectifier at the desired time. This allows the output voltage and current to be controlled.
A rectifier with two thyristors is called a half controlled rectifier while a rectifier where all the diodes have been replaced with thyristors is called a fully controlled rectifier.
Controlled Rectifiers are also known as converters.
A Bridge Rectifier is a very popular and widely used circuit. The Rectifier converts an AC supply into a DC supply. The circuit requires only four diodes.
The four diodes operate two at a time. That is, during the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D4 are in forward bias and conduct. Diodes D2 and D3 are in reverse bias. 
In the negative half cycle of the AC supply, diodes D2 and D3 are in conduction while D1 and D4 are in reverse bias.
Thus the current from the rectifier flows in only one direction.
Bridge rectifiers are used in Alternators for excitation of the field. They are also used in welding machines for DC welding and in battery Chargers
Bridge Rectifiers are also used in measurement circuits to measure the amplitude of an alternating signal.
Controlled rectifiers contain thyristors instead of diodes. This enables control of the output supply.
The Class B Chopper is typically used in applications which require transfer of power from the load to the source. An example would be regenerative braking in trains, where the power from the driving motor is sent to the power mains. This is also known as inverting operation. 
In the Class B chopper, the output voltage is positive while the output current is negative.
In a class B chopper, a diode, in reverse bias, blocks power from the source to the load. The chopper is connected parallel to the load and the source. The load voltage is the back-emf of the winding of a DC motor. When the chopper is in the ON condition, the current due to the back-emf flows through the inductance and the resistance through the chopper. The diode does not conduct as the voltage across the chopper is zero as the chopper is 'ON'. No Current flows into the source.
When the chopper is switched OFF, the voltage across the chopper increases and this biases the diode in the forward direction. The diode conducts and the power reaches the source. The source may be a battery or any other power source.
There are wide range of choppers which are used for different applications. These circuits differ in the voltage level, method of functioning and the output waveform.
Choppers can be classified into the following types
Step Up or Step Down Choppers
Step up Choppers, as the name suggests, step up the voltage. These choppers are used when the voltage has to increased to a higher level.
AC and DC Choppers
Choppers can be classified into AC and DC choppers depending on the supply
Circuit Operation
On the basis of Circuit Operation, Choppers can be classified into
On the Basis of Commutation
Depending on the Direction of Current
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D and
Class E
In recent times, Choppers are usually classified based on their application such as switched mode power supplies, Class D Electronic Amplfiers, etc.